Organization and Structure of Japanese Government Essay

Organization and Structure of Japanese Government - Essay ExampleHe also appoints the Prime Minister and the heading Judge of the Supreme Court as designated by the nourishment and the storage locker respectively.In this respect, the position of the emperor butterfly moth in postwar Japan differs from that in the prewar days when the Emperor was the source of sovereign power. Sovereignty is now is the peoples domain. The Imperial Throne is dynastic and descendant from father to son.According to the data in Wikipedia.org, Emperor Akihito (born December 23, 1933) is the current Emperor of Japan and the 125th according to the traditional order of succession. He is the worlds only reigning emperor. In Japan the reigning emperor is never referred to by his first name, but rather is referred to simply as tenn heika (His Majesty the Emperor). The era of Emperor Akihitos reign bears the name Heisei and by custom, afterward his death, he will be renamed Emperor Heisei.The Diet, self-poss essed of two Houses, na... The citizens of Japan over 20 years of come on are eligible to vote. The House of Representatives is composed of 500 members. The minimum eligible age to be elected to it is 25.The term of office of members of the House of Representatives is generally four years. The representatives are elected directly by the people. They go on to complete their term of office un little the House itself is dissolved.The House of Councilors is composed of 252 members who are also elected directly by the people. Their minimum age requirement is 30 years. Their term of office is six years, and a half of them is elected every three years. Both Houses have more or less the same power but in some exceptional cases the decision of the House of Representatives takes precedence of that of the House of Councilors. Each House has the Secretariat and the Legislation Bureau. The Diet begins its 150-day ordinary session from January each year.The Prime Minister is chosen by the Diet f rom among its members. The Prime Minister then forms a Cabinet, and the Cabinet controls the executive weapon of government.Although Japan is still considered a very Conservative nation, there is no discrimination because of race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income. The CabinetThe cabinet is the Executive come apart of the State. It is headed by the Prime Minister and comprises of a maximum of 20 Ministers of State. This would include the Cabinet Secretary and some Ministers without a portfolio as well. They are held responsible to the Diet. The Cabinet has to resign en masse when the post of Prime Minister becomes vacant. If the House of Representatives passes a no confidence resolution or rejects

Slavery and sectionalism, between the North and South Essay Example for Free

Slavery and sectionalism, between the trade union and southwestern EssayTo what extent did the Ameri slew gracious warfare succeed in removing the ii chief(prenominal) causes of conflict slavery and sectionalism, between the northward and South?The causes of the well-mannered War are a dep finish upant that build fascinated historians for generations, provoking m any(prenominal) different interpretations. From my study I pass found slavery and sectionalism to be the to the highest degree important causes. In the short term, the war did non succeed in eradicating these causes of conflict and actu eachy incited further problems, such as racism and violence. The Reconstruction period failed to achieve its main aims, which were to re-unite the two sections of North and South into the Union, and to help the Negro to infiltrate that country as a citizen, and not a slave. I also aim to project that these forces are still evident in American society today, and therefore br ing the historical argument up to date.Sectionalism is a multi-faceted cause, and many historians have stressed different aspects of this sectionalism as the cause of conflict. Cultural and complaisant historians violencee the contrast between the civilisations and values of the two regions, whereas progressive historians stress the frugal gulf between the North and South, and Marxist historians believe the class difference was the overriding cause of conflict.These views are valid as a detailed brain wave into particular areas of sectionalism, however their narrow viewpoint ignores other contributing incidentors. The most reliable view is provided by Kennet M Stampp, who demonstrates that sectionalism was a culmination of these factors which unneurotic were a major cause of conflict. He uses a variety of sources, both contemporary and secondary, to provide a balanced evaluation. This is juxtaposed to other historians who may have use a limited range of sources or been influe nced by the predominant view of the time.Other historians, however, have singled out slavery to be the cause of the sectional crisis, and indeed the war. Northern historians such as James Ford Rhodes particularly uphold this viewof the American Civil War it may safely be asserted that there was a cause, slaverySlavery certainly was a huge force in America. In 1860, four million people were slaves with more that three million of these working in the South.Nonetheless, revisionist historians have argued that slavery was not the main cause of the Civil War. This could possibly have been due to a bracing influx of evidence, or a particular historical debate. However, recently, historians have criticised these accounts for failing to appreciate the moral urgency of the slavery issue, and have given renewed emphasis to slavery as the cause of the conflict. Despite these different interpretations, it was both the multi-faceted nature of sectionalism and slavery, which caused the Civil Wa r.According to law, slavery was removed after the American Civil War with the Emancipation Proclamation of September 22 1862All persons held as slaves within any state, or designated part of a state shall be unendingly freeThis however, did not free them from the racism and discrimination that their emancipation incited. The Southern image of the Negro was shaped by their slave past, and therefore the image had not changed despite the war. For example, Brogan says the mind of the section is continuous with the past Cash and his book are themselves strong evidence of the continuation of these ideas, even one atomic number 6 and forty years later. Other historians are in accordance with this viewSouthern bitterness ran deep People still believed that what they had fought for wasnt morally wrong and that Africans were meant to be slaves.Thus, as Cable writes the ex slave was not a freeman, only a free Negro. These ideas were furthered by evidence from sociologists, anthropologists and psychologists who presented what they regarded as convincing evidence of the innate(p) racial traits of Negroes, indicating that they were intellectually inferior to whites. For example Dr J C Nott, a leading Southern ethnologist in the 1850s s concernThe Negro races stand at the last point in the scale of human worlds. These ideas were also passed on through the government, for example Alexander H Stephens (vice President of the Confederacy) said gibeity does not pull round between glowerings and whites. The one race is by nature inferior in many respects, physically and mentally to the other. Thus, white people were indoctrinated by superior, and who they believed to be current figures of the time. This contemporary evidence is extremely useful to the modern historian to understand how the belief of the inferiority of Negroes was continued, and indeed reinstated, after the war, hence causing the degradation of the blacks. economic degradation of the Negro also strengthened the white mans belief in their innate inferiority. Emancipated Negroes were potential social and economic competitors, particularly owing to the quick rising population of the South therefore white men felt that they had to keep them at the bottom of the caste and economic system.This was achieved through sharecropping. Useless come to was given to blacks who could take a share of the crop. The planters could therefore bring land to production without paid labour, whilst at the same time giving the chance for the black man to work under his own supervision and to sell his share of the crop to eventually buy his own land. However the blacks received poor treatment, were a good deal cheated out of their money and remained under the control of the whites. Hence in all but appearance this was the same as the old plantation and slavery had effectively not been removed. Derrick Murphy upholds this viewSharecropping.. kept them the Negroes in a position of poverty and social inferiorit y. Indeed sharecropping continued into the 1940s in some areas of America, such as Alabama, therefore it was another eighty years before slavery was abolished in the farms.The black codes also endorsed this idea of the black remaining under whites control. For example, a leading Northern liberal, Carl Schurz, remarked that the codes embodied the idea that although individual whites could no longer have property of the individual blacks, the blacks at large belonged to the whites at large. This could be seen as a prejudiced evaluation as Schurz is a Northerner remarking on Southern principles. However, this viewpoint is supported by fact. The black codes prohibited Negroes serving on juries or testifying against white men, disallowed Negroes marrying whites and stated that the Negroes were not allowed to leave their place of work without permission. The codes therefore limited their freedom, and reduced them to a state of pre-war slavery. Schurzs analysis is indeed correct, that the Negroes were far from being emancipated as they still belonged to the whites.Whites disallowed blacks the right to better their position through education. Post war public education was only provisioned for whites, as they believed that the education of blacks was a waste of effort, or even dangerous (Degler). All over the South in 1865-7 any white person who attempted to instruct Negroes was heart-to-heart to attacks and violence. consequently the blacks were further denied rights, much the same as they were under slavery.Under the driving will of the Radical Republicans, the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendment of 1866 and 1869 were adopted to the Constitution. These allowed the blacks to be full citizens, and equal in rights and voting privileges with white men. This threat of possible black power to white supremacy caused an upsurge of hatred towards the blacks, and an outbreak of violence and intimidation at the ballot box. Groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, Knights of White Came lia, The White Brotherhood and The Pale Faces began to emerge. Their aim is shown in the official charge to the new recruits of the Ku Klux Klan in 1867Our main and important objective is the maintenance of the supremacy of the white race in this Republic.Therefore we can see that the emancipation of the slaves genuinely provoked worse reaction towards the Negroes, and do their life one filled with terror, which it had net been to the same extent before.However, there were also some peremptory moves towards equality of blacks in the Reconstruction period. Radical Republicans believed that all sons of Adam and Eve are equal in the eyes of God and therefore that it was morally wrong for Negroes to be discriminated against. They pushed for the Force Acts passed on May thirty-first 1870, and February 21st 1871. These said that force or intimidation used to prevent citizens from voting would be punished by fine or imprisonment.A third Force Act, the Ku Klux Klan Act of April 20th 187 1, imposed heavier penalties on persons who shall conspire together, or go in disguise for the purpose of depriving any person or any class of person of the equal protection of the laws, or of equal privileges or immunities under the laws. They also pressed for a longer life span of the Freedmans Bureau, which provided food, clothe and medical care for refugees and Negroes. According to the original act, the bureaus work was to terminate within a year after the end of the war. However, through the work of the Congressional commission on Reconstruction and the radicals, the Freedmens Bureau Bill was passed in February 1866, which indefinitely extended its life span.However the bureau was hated by most Southern men, and was subject to much criticism, for example that it was stirring up discontent among the Negroes and giving false hopes, or that the bureau employed corrupt and incompetent administrators who wasted federal money. most of this is true, however a more trustworthy eval uation of the bureaus work is that of historian Kenneth M Stampp, who believed the bureau played a constructive role in the shifting of the Negro from slave to citizen and that the tradition that the bureau was rife with corruption and incompetence is an exaggeration. His evaluation can be regarded as more trustworthy owing to the fact that as a modern historian he is less deally to be influenced by past war views and the use of evidence as propaganda. more(prenominal) than likely much of this corruption will have been exaggerated by Southern propagandists to try and close the bureau down and stop any aid to the Negroes. Stampp also has a wider range of source material and the value of hindsight to provide a more balanced argument.However, the bureau did not manage the complete slip especially as Congress stopped its activities in 1869. Thus ended the one modest Federal effort to deal directly with some of the social and economic problems confronting the post-war South, as writt en by Stampp. The Radical Republicans began to decline, and were replaced with stalwarts, who were concerned with the maintaining the status quo. This meant that they were no longer concerned with the issue of Negroes, and that its crusade had lost vitality. Brognan writes, by the end of the mind 70s the Negro was seen, at best, as a bore and a nuisance.Thus, by the end of the Reconstruction Period, the Negro remained a lower caste, economically discriminated against, face up with violence, and in a position no better than that of the pre-war slavery period. Towards the end of the nineteenth century their position became worse as they faced sequestration. I t began with a movement led by Mississippi Constitutional Convention of 1890, which insisted on poll taxes and literary tests to remove blacks from the voting registers. This initiated a period of segregation in hospitals, theatres, cemeteries, housing, prisons and even with water fountains. This was not helped by the fact that the North had begun to look at a Negro through Southern eyes.The post-war era may have united the Northern and Southern beliefs about the Negroes, however it caused a greater void between the two sections in other respects. The Civil War destroyed two thirds of Southern wealth, which was worsened by a population rise in the South, thus impoverishing the South. This was in direct juxtaposition with the North, who got economic benefits from the secession. It became easier for the North to go ahead with construction, for example of the transcontinental railway, without the South opposing it, and during the war years Northern wealth had grown by 50 percent. Thus, the war actually exacerbated the pre-war problems by creating an even greater economic gulf.Slavery had also hindered the training of artisans and craftsmen, and education remained a low priority for the south. Any educated Southerners would travel to the North to go to university, thus draining the South of its intelligence, and possible makers of wealth. This therefore maintained the divisions between the two sections of the country.The war also did not change the attitude of the two sections towards one another. If anything it strengthened them, and created patriotic ideas of either sectionFour years of fighting for the preservation of their world, and their heritage, four years of measuring themselves against the Yankee had left the South more aware of their differences and of the line which divided what was South and what was not. Cash here provides a valuable and reliable view of the Southern viewpoint for an outsider. However, it is only a reliable view of the traditional Southern stance. Throughout his book it is interesting to note how revisionist ideas are not explored.This can be viewed in a positive manner however, in that we are given deep insight into one type of historical viewpoint, a view that many post-war Southerners would have held, one that plainly still exists today. This idea of S outhern nationalism was deeply rooted in their fear of losing their traditions and therefore the status quo of the section. It was an unwillingness to change into a section like the North. They had their stereotypical views of the North, thus to change they felt they would incite moral and Physical ruin.Therefore it can be seen that not only was slavery still manifest in America after the Civil War, but also the divisions between the sections still existed. Thus the reconstruction had failed in most of its aims, and the Civil War had not succeeded in removing its causes on conflict. Even in todays society, one hundred and fifty years later, the causes behind the war are still evident in America. We can see that when the causes relate to the opinion, habits and traditions of the people they are extremely difficult to remove, and the mid set is often passed down through generations. The range of sources that I have used have all been unanimous in one aspect they all acknowledge that the Civil War has been and will continue to be one of the most influential events that America has ever experienced, and that it is difficult to assess whether the divisions underlying the war will ever be fully removed from American society.

The novel Lord of the Flies by William Golding Essay Example for Free

The novel Lord of the Flies by William Golding EssayThe novel Lord of the Flies by William Golding is a political satire on society. The andt of the satire is civilization at the time of the second world war. During this era, a civilized society goes to war and obliterates, maims, and kills. In this novel, Golding depicts destruction, killing, and fear as lousiness in the heart of man, and uses irony to elaborate on this theme.The novel begins with a plane crashing on an uninhabited island. We atomic number 18 not told the reason for this, but we canister assume the crash was a result of events associated with World War II. The survivors of the crash are a free radical of boys who we know little to the highest degree prior to the crash. The group of boys then attempt to create a functional society by using a system of rules and a chief. The story then revolves around the dislocation of the boys society.Piggy and Ralph meet up with each other after escaping from their shot - kill plane. A large scar was made by the crashing plane in the untouched jungle, symbolise the first of mans destruction on the island. A war is going on in the outside world, and now for the rest of the book, everyone on the island will be quarantined from the real world and put into their own world. Throughout the book we are told of the scar, and it is clear to understand that the scar symbolises mans destruction and destructive forcesThe island is ultimately a indwelling environment untamed by man that holds the resources for the boys survival parallel to other manners on the island. Golding tries to convey the island like a cage confining the boys and discriminate them from the rest of the world. We are told in the story that no boy could reach even the bring down over the stretch of water. This shows us that the reef is like a boundary that cannot be crossed by any inhabitant on the island. A major factor stopping the boys getting even close to the reef is between the beach and the reef the snapped sharks waited. This information helps us comprehend there is no way out.Another device Golding uses to emphasise the boys isolation is metaphors the miraculous pounding stars. The stars help us understand the boys isolation as they are surrounded by mystery and speculation but their reality can never be found because they are so far away and out of reach. We are told the boys response to this situation is that they were gradually made accustomed to these mysteries and ignored them. Even though the mysteries are ignored, this does not mean that they do not exist or does it? Sometimes land loomed where there was no land. This shows us that however tangible nigh of the mirages may seem, they are not necessarily real.The island is not an obvious character or type of life but it demonstrates human qualities and characteristics through its description. The way Golding brings the island to life is mainly through personification and metaphors The great roc k loitered. The wind roared. A thunderous plume leapt half way up the mount. Sending at survive an arm of surf up. This language help us visualize the island as a character more powerful than any life on the island, but it has different capabilities and communicates as a force opposed to a physical presence.Near the beginning of Lord of the Flies we can see the island as a paradise The water was solider than blood and the temperature even though a little hot is generally comfortable. Which shows us how generally the boys were happy on the island. This gives us an optimistic view towards the book the transmission line was bright. Later on the mood changes to a darker more cynical mood, which warns us of trouble to come. The sun transforms from a warm presence to an angry eye. This device Golding uses warns us in chapter nine that tension is rising between Jack and Ralph Revolving masses of gas piled up the static until the air was ready to explode. Throughout Lord of the Flies Gol ding uses surrounding conditions to reflect the mood on the island. This device helps the island become integrated into the story as a character.The boys in the difficult situation they are presented with have different reactions to their surroundings. Their first experiences with the island prove to show a foreign unfriendly environment All round him the wide scar smashed into the jungle was a bath of heat. The metaphor bath of heat shows the area around the boys is humid and the destruction may be a message about how humans are in the centre of our planets destruction.This situation because it is so extreme brings out the boys characters immediately and shows their ability to cope with the situation. Ralphs first reactions are casual as he pays little attention to his surroundings, which may indicate he may not understand what is happening at this stage. He could as well as feel the island poses little threat to him and is in a safe environment. Piggy, however, seems to understa nd how serious his situation is and feels unsafe on the island we can see this from his attempts to start a conversation with Ralph and he makes suggestions to deal with the situation. I suppose well want to know all their names.At the end of Lord of the Flies the island is burning down and Ralph is being hunted down. The fact that the island is burning down could be suggesting the only thing we are going to achieve is the destruction of the planet if we keep on fighting and developing weapons of greater power. The boys near the end of the book describe the surrounding events as a game. This could be telling us that wars and destruction in modern society are just considered a game but really they are destroying our lives and people are dying. So when the boys were taken off the island the mind arises were they really rescued, or just moved to the real world to aid the destruction of our planet. The irony of the final chapter can be viewed either way about if the boys were really re scued.

Queen Elizabeth I Essay Example for Free

Queen Elizabeth I EssayThe play A Midsummer Nights Dream was written by William Shakespeare in 1594. From the theme and context of the play, I shadow conclude that it was probably written for a wedding. It would be similar to the epithalamion written at weddings at this time, entirely a more elaborate version. Many of the lines hoar and it all(prenominal) has the feel of poetry some beautiful and some seeming supernatural and spell-like. It canvasses all aspects of marriage through plot, characters and symbolism, touching on both swallow and dark areas. The tragic side is shown more through references that actually spelling it out Pyramus and Thisby is one vitrine of a union which ended in catastrophe. However, patronage this, the main idea of marriage is perceived as harmonious all is shown in a comic frame, with a humorous touch and a intellectual ending. This would be an appropriate feel for a wedding play because it gives the concept of marriage an idyllic feel, tellin g the newlyweds what they want to hear that marriage is a grievous idea.If you search the play in depth, you allow for find that not only is it close to the union of people in a marriage, unless overly about the unity of opposing forces in nature and bringing harmony from chaos. It is also, in an even broader sense, about the Elizabethan ideals about God and the universe. To clarify exactly what these ideals were and how A Midsummer Nights Dream defines them, I must start at the beginning with the story of Adam and Eve. Elizabethans believed in everything fitting into its natural place.After studying the sky, they feeling the universe was made up of spheres, one containing the stars, one containing planets and so on. They thought the Earth was at the centre of the universe the spheres they believed in were a way of dealing with the fact that different bodies in the sky moved in different ways. It was thought that these spheres made the area harmonious, but humans couldnt see the true smasher of it because of Adam and Eve. The legend goes that Eve was tempted by the serpent and ate the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden.This, apparently, caused the whole human race to fall from Gods grace. Now, the relevance of this to A Midsummer Nights Dream and the theme of marriage is that when this happened, it meant man kind could not the music of the spheres they were only told by God that everything had its place. Even the evil in the world has a reason for being there. Humans cannot see quite how everything fits in because of their sin. They do not fully understand why some things happened because they sanctimoniousness see the big picture. This was illustrated by the Great Chain of Being.God came at the top of this chain, with angels under Him. Then came nature (represented by Oberon and Titania), people (shown in all the human characters), and below them animals, plants and rocks. Humans came between animals and Angels, a relationship personified by Bot tom. He is a typical human, not very bright or beautiful, but just a normal working class person. He then has a link with both the animal and angel world he is sour into an ass and he has a relationship with Titania. This establishes the link between animals, angles and humans, and also tells you about the human nature.They are always trying to find something greater that themselves (for example fairies or angels) but to the greater beings, they must look as animals do to us far beneath them and having little or no brains. Also exhibiting the uniform way of thinking was the fact that men came above women in the category of humans. If you were to sum up the play with one idea, this is the single idea addressed close to eloquently. Many events in A Midsummer Nights Dream suggest the superiority of men, through the media of imagery, plot and characters, which will be tackled later.The Elizabethan idea of the cosmos is also addressed by the union of arctics connected with marriage. Their idea of the universe is that everything joins together perfectly and everything has its place. Things which may not seem to have a purpose will have been created by God for a reason we just dont know what that is. The prime example is the joining of a man and a woman in marriage. It may seem to fool more sense to join two women or two men, as these will have more in common, but this play is trying to say a little of both the male and female persona is needed to make the match united.They are like opposite forces, but marriage brings them together. It is as is they have only half of the qualities needed to bring harmony and they must be brought together in marriage to make a whole. The same is also being expressed through the union of other opposite forces. There are many contrasting pairs which link hired hand in hand in this play night and day sleeping and waking supernatural and mortal discord and harmony passion and reason and in conclusion female and male. These pairs are all the exact opposite of each other and yet Shakespeare is presenting the notion that we need each half of the pair to make the world harmonious.

Discontinuities using Automatic Flaw Detectors

Discontinuities development Automatic Flaw sensorsEET 333 Nondestructive Evaluation of Materials Lab Report 3 -Calibration Procedure and Evaluations of Discontinuities using Automatic Flaw Detectors USM 35, dark blue 58, dark blue 60Statement of ObjectiveIn the lab manual look into 5 and try out 6 were displayed as separate experiments. In experiment 5, the placeup of the equipment with course of studyming the thingmajig and calibrating the rectifyup for the GE care technologies Portable unhearable Flaw Detectors USM 35X, USN 58L, and USN60. In this experiment either the standardisation was using the GE Inspection technologies Portable Ultrasonic Flaw Detector USN 60 The objectives for experiment 5 was to manage the setup of the Ultrasonic Flaw Detector was correct and to manage to fine-tune the Ultrasonic Flaw Detector for several(predicate) tests. The construes are straight calamus investigation and angle beam probe these are also methods of standardisation. T he other deuce methods of calibration are field of force premium and hold premium calibration.In experiment 6, the evaluation of discontinuities using the GE Inspection technologies Portable Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors USM 35X, USN 58L, and USN 60. In this experiment, all selective information that was collected and saved was using the GE Inspection technologies Portable Ultrasonic Flaw DetectorUSN 60. The objectives for experiment 6 were to seek and find discontinuities in particular steel and aluminum. Steel and aluminum was intentiond in the experiment to find the lengths and conformation of the brand or discontinuities in every piece tested. The two techniques employ are the 6 dB drop and weld interrogation.TheoryIn experiment 5, the setup of the equipment and calibrating the setup for the GE Inspection technologies Portable Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors. These Detectors to each one have their own purpose in the field of nondestructive evaluation of materials and produce ult rasonic waves through the probe(s) and display the received signals on the sift on the artifice. There are many distinct probes that can be attached to the devices. The precedent USM 35X is a smaller unit that has a battery for an easier way to routine in the field, the USN 58L and USN60 are larger models also the USN 60 is an updated chance variable of the USN 58L. Both the USN 58L and USN60 still have batteries for portability that are mostly used in a stationed orbital cavity. All of these detectors are capable to be connected to computers and using the program ULTRADOC to save images on the devices.In each experiment, there were many different probes used. These probes and methods were used to produce a refracted shear or longitudinal waves in the archetype. In experiment 5 the probes used were single probe and twofold probe for straight beam probe. A single probe has only one element. A duel probe has two elements, each element is angled in a way that when one sends a triplicity shaped wave and comes back end it can be received by the other element. Before putting the probe directly on the material a colloidal gelatine must be added to birth a gapless space and to allow the transmission of the ultrasonic waves to go through to the specimen successfully. When using the angle probe method, the gel must be between the wedge and specimen but also must be between the transducer and the wedge. The angle probe method uses a single probe that is attached to a wedge that has a specific angle and is only used for that material.In experiment 5, there were many types of methods to graduate the device. The different types were straight beam probe, angle beam probe, area amplitude, and out outstrip amplitude calibrations. In each calibration method a different throng was used. In straight beam probe calibrations use a step calibration shove and can be made from many different materials, but in this experiment we used steel, aluminum and Plexiglas subst ances which had 5 steps on each block. The block started at .5 and decreased to .1 in increments of .1.The blocks used to calibrate angle beam probes were the IIW block and the small angle calibration blocks which were both made of steel. These blocks are the lineament standards used for steel calibration. The blocks used for area amplitude and distance amplitude calibrations are the ATSM blocks set. The set includes nine blocks of steel with a diameter of 1-15/16th inches and have a 5/64 deep sea dog that was in the center bottom surface in each block. Other blocks have distinct lengths that made different lengths from the top to the hole in the block and other blocks had distinct diameter holes from each other.In experiment 5, using the straight beam probe calibration method inaugural to find the discontinuities in a certain substance. This method was used in experiment 6 when we used the 6 dB drop method to find the magnitude and display of the discontinuity in vamooses. In experiment 6 an angle beam probe method was used to find desolates in given specimens, one of these methods was the weld testing method which found these shifts in the welded steel samples given in class. To find the discontinuity or defect in the weld the area amplitude and distance amplitude methods were used to find the specific flaw. These methods can be used to find the defected area in the specimen. Using the equation = 20 we can take the different in the gains and in V1 as 1 then put it in the and V2 part to find the amplitude. Then we can create the graphs, area vs. amplitude and distance vs. amplitude.In experiment 6, the purpose is to be using the methods that were in experiment 5 to calibrate and then to find defects in specimens using the two different techniques. unmatched of the methods was the 6 dB drop method to track and find the appearance of the flaw in the specimen. This is done by when the amplitude is dropped by round half then you found the defect. Whe n using the equation = 20 and put in 2 for the the result will be 6 dB which is where the designation for the method came from. The welding method is coterminous, which is to find a defect in a weld and describe the defect by the appearance and location of it.EquipmentUSM35X, USN 58L, USN 60 GE Inspection technologies Portable Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors2 Transducers2.25 MHz5.0 MHz tiptoe Wedge45703 Step Calibration BlocksSteelAluminumPlexiglasIIW Calibration BlockMiniature Angle-Beam Calibration BlockASTM Calibration Block Set4 Bolts in BoxCouplant7 Weld Testing Steel SamplesAluminum Plate with dentsCaliperPencilComputerULTRADOCExperimental Setup understand 1 epitome 2 meet 3 inscribes 1 shows the GE Inspection technologies Portable Ultrasonic Flaw DetectorUSN 60 used within the laboratory.Figure 4Figure 5Figures 2,3,4,5,6,7 are take ins of all the calibration blocks that were used in the laboratory. Figure 3 shows the miniature angle beam calibration block. Figure 2 shows t he IIW calibration block. Figure 4 shows the step calibration block in different material types. Figure 5 shows the ASTM calibration kit.Figure 6Figure 6 shows the wedges that were used for angle beam calibration and testing. The left block is 45 and the right block is 70Figure 7 Figure 8Figure 7 shows the deadbolts that were tested in experiment 6 and think 8 shows the steel weld samples that were also tested in experiment 6.ProcedureIn experiment 5 the first section was to setup the device. In the lab manual it says to refer to the devices manual but in the class the professor showed how to use the device. In this experiment we used a GE Inspection technology Portable Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors USN 60. To start off is to start to program to device to the correct parameters. The mea positive(predicate)ments were always in inches and the probe was positd under the PLSRCVR button menu. To set the probe if it is a single probe or dual probe we use the DUAL part on the pervade to se t dual on or off, in these experiments the dual will be off. The aforementioned(prenominal) sieve will be a PULSER which should automatically be spike. by and by it was all completed under that tab, the home button was pressed to go back to the main menu screen. The left dial on the side would change the dB. The right dial would change the number the selector was put on. The range is changed so the instant we are looking for is on the screen and not off the screen. To make sure you are reading the correct heartbeat you must set the opening over the pulse and the width of the pulse you are trying to read. The pulse should also have about 80 percent of amplitude. After all this setup the device may be begin to start to be calibrated.To begin to calibrate with the straight beam probe for experiment 5, you must determine which material you will be testing and then pick the correct step block that correlates with that material. Determine if you are using a single or dual probe. In this experiment we used a single probe, so the DUAL should be off. If on the top of the home screen a disaster does not state the SA, then go to the results tab and make sure it is displayed, then hit the home button and press the autocal button. This will display two important windows of REF1 and REF2, these are programmed to which steps you are going to use on the block, and we picked .4 and .2 as the writes. The range is set to a length longer than the longer reference point you used to be able to see it on the screen. The frequency on the device should also match the frequency of the probe(s) being used. put in gel on the steps and then place the probe on REF1 which should be the smaller heaviness. Press record, make sure your gate is over the first pulse for REF1 and press record again, and then move the probe to the second step, move the gate over the pulse and press record again. If it was done correctly the gate over the last pulse recorded should show the numbered thickn ess on the step. Also on the home screen the velocity and probe delay should be the very(prenominal) as the material that is being tested. If this is correct then the calibration was a success. A picture of the screen was interpreted for each calibration specimen.The next section of experiment 5 is to use the angle beam probe on the IIW block and miniature angle block by using a 45 wedge with a 2.25 MHz probe. To set the angle, go to the home screen and then hit the TRIG button, make sure the angle is set to the same angle the wedge you are using. Press the home button again and then go to the results tab and makes sure the boxes on the top of the screen are set up to display SA, PA, DA, A%A. Press the home button again. Press the autocal tab and set the REF1 to 4 and REF2 to 9 to program the device for the IIW block, to program the device for the miniature block then set the REF to 1 and 4. Put gel between the transducer and wedge before putting them to plumpher. Put gel on the bl ock and then place the probe at the 0 that is marked on the block with the line on the wedge. Do the same steps to record the REF as stated before. The velocity of the shear wave that is used in the angle beam probe should be dissever by about 2 for the velocity of the longitudinal wave that is used in the straight beam probe in the same specimen. Pictures are taken with the gate over the 4 and 9 pulse for the IIW and the 1 and 4 pulse for the miniature block.The final part of experiment 5 was to find the area amplitude and the distance amplitude by using the cylinders from the ASTM set. These cylinders have the same bloom but the diameters of the hole within the cylinders are different. On the cylinders used the diameters were stated, which we used the cylinders that said 3/64, 5/64, and 8/64. In order to make the graph area vs. amplitude, the equation = 20 was used with the found gain. To determine the distance the sestet cylinders that had the same diameter hole within in it was used but the height of each cylinder was different which were 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2.25, 3.75, and 6.75. In order to make the graph distance vs. amplitude, the equation = 20 was used with the found gain..In experiment 6, the initial part was to find the depths of four bolts that are hidden from push-down stack in a box with only the head of the bolt shown. In addition on the bolts we had to determine if the bolt had a defect and the location of the defect. To start, the device must be calibrated by using the straight beam probe method. Put the gel on the top of the bolt and use the 5 MHz probe, make sure the device is set on dual probe on for this probe. While scanning the top of the bolt the pulses on the screen should show the bottom of the bolt which will determine how long the bolt is, also before the pulse for the bottom, other pulses will determine if a defect was found and how far it is from the top of the bolt. severally bolt had a picture taken of the devices screen to sh ow the defect. After testing the bolts, the next section was to use the 6 dB drop method as described before to seek and locate the appearance of the defect within the random aluminum specimen given. By calibrating the device using the straight beam method and covering the entire surface of the specimen with gel. The specimen was then examined with a horizontal and upright motion with the probe to locate the defect. While this was happening another person was watching the screen to make sure a pulse was not missed. The pulse would have two equal pulses when a defect was found, after a defect was found, the end was found on and a pencil mark was placed. Each time we found an edge we placed a pencil mark. After we have decided we have found all the edges we would connect the dots to make the shape. After the shapes were decided upon, the back plate was removed and shown the real shapes of the defects, then comparing the drawn shapes wo the actual shapes.In experiment 6, the welding me thod was used to examine six welded steel specimens. To begin with start to calibrate the device for the angle beam probe using the procedures as stated before. Following those procedures, apply gel to the surface of the plate being tested and to search for the defect within the welded part of the plate by determining the depth in the specimen compared to the thickness of the specimen. Marking each end of the defect then measuring the length of the defect, then to compare it to the given sheet that will be shown in the appendix, of the defect area. Also stated on the sheet, each length of the defect should be 1 inch in length.DATAExperiment 5Figure 9 heterosexual pobe Steel .4Figure 10 Straight pobe Steel .3Figure 11 Straight pobe Steel .2Figure 12 Straight pobe Steel .5Figure 13 Straight pobe Steel .75Figure 14 Straight pobe acrylic fiber .4Figure 15 Straight pobe Acrylic .5Figure 16 Straight pobe Acrylic .3Figure 17 Straight pobe Acrylic .2Figure 18 Straight pobe Acrylic .75Figur e 19 Straight pobe Al .4Figure 20 Straight pobe Al .5Figure 21 Straight pobe Al .3Figure 22 Straight pobe Al .2Figure 23 Angle beam , ref 1Figure 24 Angle beam, ref 2Figure 25 Miniature Angle Beam, ref 2Figure 26 Miniature Angle beam, ref 1Figure 27 Miniature angle beam reverse, ref 1Figure 28 Miniature angle beam reverse, ref 2Figure 29 Bolt 1 defectFigure 30 Bolt 1 lengthFigure 31 Bolt 2 edgeFigure 32 Bolt 2 LengthFigure 33 Bolt 3 LengthFigure 34 Bolt 3 edgeFigure 35 Bolt 4 LengthFigure 36 Bolt 4 faultFigure 37 Cylinder 3/64 back fence inFigure 38 Cylinder 3/64 diameter of flatbed bottomFigure 39 Cylinder 5/64Figure 40 Cylinder 8/64Figure 41 cylinder height 6Figure 42 cylinder height 3Figure 43 cylinder height 1.5Figure 44 cylinder height .75Figure 45 cylinder height .5Figure 46 cylinder height .25Analysis of DataPart of experiment 5, in straight beam probe calibration, figures 9 through 24 shows pictures of the device screen of a few steps that we used to calibrate the device. For example in steel at .4 the probe delay was .4119us and velocity was .2252 in/us. In figure 14 the Plexiglas was on stop .4 with a velocity of .0873 in/us and the probe delay was .4119 us. In figure 19 it sows the .4 step for aluminum, which shows a velocity of .2458 in/us and probe delay of .4713 us. In figures 13 and 18 show the side of the step block at .75 for another step.In angle beam probe calibration, the figures 23 through 28 show pictures of the screens device for those calibrations. Figure 23 and 24 shows the references of the IIW steel calibration block which had a velocity of .1599 in/us and probe delay of 26.4325 us. This value was supposed to be half of the straight beam calibration but it was remnant enough. In figures 25 through 28 shows the miniature calibration block and the probe delay was 5.3931 us and the velocity was .1266 in/us. This was also compared to the straight beam probe velocity in steel and should be about half. It was close enough to be counted . Looking at the probe delays, it seemed to be reasonable time for the distance it had to go.In area and distance amplitude calibration the figures 37 through 40 displayed the devices screen of each cylinder tested. Figure 37 shows the back wall of the 3/64 diameter hole which had a 25dB. In figure 38, it shows the 3/64 diameter of flat bottom hole at 53dB. In figure 39, shows the 5/64 diameter of flat bottom hole with a 50 dB. In figure 40, shows the 8/64 diameter flat bottom whole with a 47 dB. Each figure had a probe delay of .4822 us and a velocity of .2331 in/us, which was very close to the velocity reference for steel.Table 1DiameterNotationGain (dB)3/64V1535/64V2508/64V347Graph 1In table 1 it displays the dB for every diameter. In graph 1 the area vs. amplitude calibration shorten is shown. Table 1 and equation = 20 was used to calculate the calibration curve. An example of a calculation is shown belowV2-V1=40 dB 46dB= 6 dB = 20 V2= 2VIn figures 41 through 46, the picture s shown are the different heights of cylinders but the diameter of the hole inside is the exact same. As follows, figure 41 shows 6 cylinder, figure 42 shows 3 cylinder, figure 43 shows 1.5 cylinder, figure 44 shows .75 cylinder, figure 45 shows .5 cylinder and figure 46 shows .25 cylinder. Each figure shows .2312 in/us for velocity and probe delay is 4.8750 us.NotationHeightSound PathGain (dB)V16.755.812100V23.752.97692V32.251.48074V41.5.74068V51.25.49161V61.24753Table 2Graph 2In table 2 it displays the dB and sound paths on the picture taken for each picture of different heights. In graph 2 it displays the distance vs. amplitude calibration curve. The curve was made from the equation = 20 and table 2. If you compare the graph with reference data my graph is not accurate at all. With my data incomplete this is an example of how to calculate the equationV3-V1=47.1 dB-97.2 dB= 50.1 dB = 20 V3=319.89VIn experiment 6 the bolt defects are shown in figures 29 through 36, which show a p icture of the devices screen for the four bolts that were examined. Figures 29 and 30 for bolt 1 shows the length at 2.03in and defect at .608in, figures 31 and 32 shows bolt 2 with length of 3.398in and defect at .473in, figures 33 and 34 shows bolt 3 with length 3.954in and no defect but we took an edge of the bolt to show, figures 35 and 36 for bolt 4 shows length at 4.426in and defect at 3.922in. Figure 47 shows a picture of the bolts.Figure 47Aluminum Plate defect (6dB drop)-Figure 48Figure 49In figures 48 and 49, it displays the aluminum specimen that was tested in experiment 6 using the 6dB technique. Figure 48 shows the sketched markings and figure 49 shows the actual defects.Figure 50Defect 1 T= 0.375in length of defect= 1.013inFigure 51Defect 2 T= 0.395in Length of defect= 1.17inFigure 52Defect 5 T= 0.397in Length of defect= 1.012inFigure 53Defect 6 T= 0.390 Length of defect= 0.992Figure 54Figure 55Defect 7 T= 0.390 Length of defect= 1.047Figure 56Defect 8 T= 0.389in lengt h of defect= 0.915inIn figures 50 through 56, shows the pictures for the six weld tests examined for experiment 6. Figure 50 shows defect 1 with thickness of .375 and defect at .035, figure 51 shows defect 2 with thickness of .395 and defect at .241, figure 52 shows defect 5 with thickness of .397in and defect at .201in. Figure 53 and 54 shows defect 6 with thickness of .390 and defects at .121 and .271. Figure 55 shows defect 7 with thickness of .390 and defect at .184. Figure 56 shows defect 8 with thickness at .389 and defect at .186. This data was compared to the sheet in the appendix.Discussion of ResultsIn experiment 5, we learned how to calibrate the three different detector devices using many calibration techniques. One of the methods was straight beam calibration. Following the setup and recording the pictures of the experimental data, we can agree on the calibration was a success. This was agreed by making sure the heights matched the heights of the step block written on t he steps. Our heights were very close to the actual height. To make sure this is correct we were also shown a probe delay and velocity. The velocity of steel we got .2252 in/us and the reference velocity was .2300 in/us. The probe delay was .4119 us which was approved by Dr. Genis to be okay. For aluminum the velocity was .2458 in/us and compared to the reference velocity of .2490 in/us, our velocity was very close. The probe delay was .4713 us. For Plexiglas, the velocity was .0873 in/us and compared to the reference velocity .110 in/us was close but still had decent gap. The probe delay was .4119 us.The next part of experiment 5 was angle beam calibration. Following the setup and recording the pictures of the experimental data, we can agree on the calibration was a success. To see if our data matched was to detect the pulses were in the right place. For IIW calibration block, the first pulse seen was close to the 4 mark and the second pulse was also very close to 9 mark. For the m iniature calibration block the first pulse was at 1 and the second pulse was at 4. We detected all the pulses were at the correct location on the screen. We were also able to get the velocity of .1599 in/us which are approximately half of the reference velocity for steel. The probe delay is 26.4325 us.In experiment 5, the last part was area amplitude and distance amplitude calibrations. For area amplitude we were able to figure out that we succeeded by the velocity and probe delay. The steel cylinders had a velocity of .2331 in/us, which compared to the steel reference velocity it seems to be very close. The probe delay of .4822 us seemed to match the accepted probe delay. The last part to confirm the data was from graph 1, which shows the area amplitude calibration curve that matched the reference curve that was presented in class. The velocity we obtained was .2312 in/us which was proper. A trend of 7 or 8 in different dB until between two of the cylinders, but at the end it was o k because as long as when the dB was brocaded the trend line was also being raised. Looking on the graph it seemed that either the graph was wrong or the collected data was wrong. It could be fourfold reasons why